is a seminal historical work by Russian historian Oleg Khlevniuk , published in 2004 as part of the Annals of Communism series by Yale University Press .
Khlevniuk utilizes previously top-secret documents from the Soviet state and Communist Party archives , including: The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization...
: During 1937–38, the system shifted from a labor-focused model toward one of physical extermination . Inmates became the primary victims of purges, and living conditions in the camps deteriorated to lethal levels. Primary Source Material is a seminal historical work by Russian historian
: Contrary to the view of the Gulag as a successful industrial engine, Khlevniuk presents evidence that the camp economy was never effective . It was plagued by poor planning, exhaustion of labor, and was ultimately a financial burden on the state. including: : During 1937–38