: Defeat at the Battle of Vienna (1683) signaled a turning point.

: Reforms in the 19th century modernized education and the military.

: Captured Byzantine territories in Anatolia and the Balkans.

: Increasing debt and nationalist uprisings weakened central control. 4. Collapse (1908–1922)

: Mustafa Kemal Atatürk founded the Republic of Turkey in 1923.